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Vitis vinifera L.
Vitaceae
Old World, European or Californian grapes
Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
- Uses
- Folk Medicine
- Chemistry
- Description
- Germplasm
- Distribution
- Ecology
- Cultivation
- Harvesting
- Yields and Economics
- Energy
- Biotic Factors
- Chemical Analysis of Biomass Fuels
- References
Cultured for fruit, eaten fresh or processed into wine, raisins, juice, with
some cultivars adapted for the canning industry. Grape seeds contain 620%
oil, used for edible purposes, soaps, and as a linseed substitute. The leaves
of this and other species are eaten in other cultures.
Sap of young branches used as remedy for skin diseases. Leaves astringent,
used in diarrhea. Juice of unripe fruit astringent, used in throat affections.
Dried fruit demulcent, cooling, sweet, laxative, stomachic, used in thirst,
heat of body, coughs, hoarseness, consumption and in wasting diseases. A
malagma made from the seed is said to be a folk remedy for condylomata of the
joints. The fruit, prepared in various manners, is said to remedy mola,
uterine tumors, hardness of the liver, tumors, and cancer. The juice, prepared
in various manners, is said to remedy tumors of the tonsils, excrescences of
the seat, tumors of the fauces, indurations, tumors of the neck, chronic
tumors, and hard cancers.
Fruits contain malic, tartaric, and racemic acide. Oxalic acid in unripe
fruits. In Africa, per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 62.0 calories,
82.7 g H2O, 0.6 g protein, 0.4 g. fat, 15.8 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber,
0.5 g ash, 21.0 mg Ca, 19.0 mg P, 0.8 mg Fe, and 50.0 mg b-carotene
equivalent. Elsewhere it is reported to contain 68.0 calories, 81.6 g H2O, 0.6
g protein, 0.7 g fat, 16.7 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.4 g ash, 12.0
mg Ca, 15.0 mg P, 0.9 mg Fe, trace b-carotene equivalent, 0.05 mg thiamine,
0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.5 mg niacin, and 3.0 mg ascorbic acid. In Asia, the
fruit is reported to contain 50.0 calories, 26.0 g H2O, 0.5 g protein, 0.3 g
fat, 12.8 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 0.4 g ash, 9.0 mg Ca, 20.0 mg P,
0.6 mg Fe, 6.0 mg Na, 111.0 mg K, 50.0 mg b-carotene equivalent, 0.1 mg
thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 0.2 mg niacin, and 4.0 mg ascorbic acid.
Perennial, woody climbing vine; stems up to 35 m long, but in cultivation
usually reduced by annual pruning to 13 m; leaves thin, circular to
circular-ovate, 523 cm broad, margins dentate or jagged, basal sinus deep and
lobes often overlapping, 57-lobed, glabrescent above, often with persisten
tomentum beneath; tendrils branched, normally opposite 2 leaves out of three;
flowers numerous, in dense panicles or thyrses opposite leaves; flower clusters
and tendrils absent at every third node; calyx very shortly 5-lobed; petals
about 5 mm, pale green, sweet-scented; fruit a soft, pulpy berry, skin adhering
to pulp, oval or oblong, ellipsoid to globose, skin green, yellow, red or
purplish-black, in large, long clusters; seeds 23, sometimes none, pyriform,
with rather long beak. Fl. MayJune; fr. summer.
Over 8,000 cultivars are listed, most of them having been selected for a
specific region and purpose. Subsp. vinifera (subsp. sativa
Hegi) has hermaphoditic flowers, and fruits 622 mm, ellipsoid to globose,
green, yellow, red or purple-black, sweet, with -2 seeds which are pyriform
with a rather long beak. Cultivated for wine making and for edible fruit in
southern and central Europe and widely naturalized. Following cultivars grow
and produce in the tropics: 'Black Hambo', 'Muscat of Alexandria', 'Gordo
Blanco', 'Fladi', 'Pandhare-sahebi', 'Bakhari'. In general, grapes are
unsuitable to humid, steamy, hot tropics, as they need a cold period for
resting and a dry sunshine climate for ripening fruit. At some elevations in
tropics, these conditions are found and grapes will grow and produce fruit
there, sometimes producing 2 crops a year. Known to grow in Sri Lanka,
Zanzibar, Trinidad, and Tobago. Reported from the Central Asia, Near East, and
Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, wine grape or cvs thereof is reported to
tolerate bacteria, drought, hydrogen fluoride, frost, high pH, heat, laterite,
low pH, mildew, sodium or salt, slope, and smog. (2n = 38, 40, 57)
Native to Asia Minor where wild grapes still grow. Culture limited mainly to
Northern Hemisphere.
Requirements are for long, warm to hot dry summers and mild winters. Plant
damage occurs at -18°C; frost kills young shoots. Daily mean temperature
should be at least 18°C. This species will not endure the high temperatures
coupled with high humidity of tropics. Humidity promotes disease. In United
States this grape is grown in California and Arizona, but will not tolerate the
cold winters and humid summers of eastern United States. Grape culture is best
where there is no rain between blooming and harvesting. Rain is desirable in
winter but now in spring or fall. Irrigation is desirable and often essential;
several irrigations may be necessary, beginning in spring when available water
in soil has been used, and continuing until harvest; perhaps later in very hot
regions. Sandy or gravelly clay loams are most desirable, as they provide good
drainage. Soil fertility is not so important as soil structure. Ranging from
Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Moist Forest Life
Zones, Vitis vinifera is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
0.9 to 27.2 dm (mean of 12.1 cases = 134) annual temperature of 8.3 to
28.5°C (mean of 21.8 cases = 133) and pH of 4.5 to 8.7 (mean of 6.8 cases =
66). (Duke, 1978, 1979)
Grapes are propagated from cuttings, field-budding or graftings to resistant
rootstocks, such as 'Rupestris St. George', 'Aramon X Rupestris No. 1',
'Solonis x Othello 16131, 'Dogridgel or 'Salt Creek'. Prepare area to be
planted to grapes by plowing to 25 cm and providing organic matter in soil,by
turning under a cover crop orgreen manure. Grapes are set in either fall or
spring. If in spring, plant early to give plants long growing season. Fall
planting is unwise in northern regions. Damage from heaving may occur with
fall-planted vines. Most commercial vineyards are set 3.6 m with 1-year old
plants. In California plant spacings range from 1.8 to 2.4 m x 3.6 m, using
1350 to 1025 vines/ha, respectively. Plant vines about same depth as they grew
in nursery, and prune them to a single stem with 2 or 3 buds. Trellis or posts
with wires are necessary to train vines. Do not set vine too close to a wooden
post, as the post will be disturbed when post has to be replaced. Plant 2
plants in space between posts. if concrete or steel posts are used, the grape
hoe is easier to use if a vine is set at each post and one in between. Set
vines directly under trellis. Vines out of line may be constantly injured by
cultivation. Training and pruning vary with different kinds. Pruning, a very
important practice, has a direct relationship to larger yields, higher quality
and more uniform production. Vineyards are normally cultivated in spring and
early summer in order to stimulate growth. Cultivation should be shallow, only
7.510 cm deep. If erosion is a problem, cultivate only enough to prevent
weeds from becoming a problem. Leave trash and some growth on land and have
some pockets to catch water in soil. Growth of vines may be restricted by
seeding a fast growing cover crop which will compete for nutrients and
moisture. Since grapevines often outlive those who plant them, and will
grow and produce indefinitely with good care, they also outlive the humus
supply of most soils unless replenished. Where manure is readily available,
2575 MT/ha may be incorporated into the soil. If chicken manure is used,
since it is richer in quickly available nitrogen, only one-third to one-half is
required. Maintaining organic matter in soil may be aided by growing and
turning under cover crops, weeds, hay or straw. Minor elements may be needed
to prevent chlorosis, as borax, magnesium sulfate or ferrous sulfate.
Fertilizer should be used primarily as a supplement to, not a substitute for,
good culture and organic matter. Garden crops may be intercropped while vines
are young; few large-scale grape growers practice interplanting or
companion-cropping. Girdling of canes is often used to concentrate
carbohydrates in fruit.
Stage of maturity for harvesting depends on the use to be made of fruit, such
as table, jelly, juice, or wine. Guides to proper stage of ripeness are: taste
(greenest grapes of cluster should be tested), color, aroma, changing of stem
from green to brown, shrivling of stem, softening in texture of pulp,
thickening of juice, ease with which fruit separate from stem, brown seeds,
freedom of seeds from pulp and sugar content. Do not pick too early. Much
weight is lost by picking too early and fruit is not so sweet. The longer
grapes remain on vine (within reason) the higher the sugar content. Acidity is
important to taste and to wine-making quality. In California type grapes,
sugar-acid ratio gives a better measurement of quality than either factor
alone. Grapes do not gain sugar after picking. As grapes do not mature
evenly, they must be gone over 2 or more times to get most of crop harvested at
proper stage of maturity. Careful handling of fruit is necessary for table use
of grapes. Cut grape clusters from vine, pick off green and damaged fruits and
place gently in picking baskets. Grapes should not be picked when wet, or
during very hot weather, as they decay quickly. Mechanical pickers have been
devised and some vineyards are especially trained for their use. Vinifera type
grapes are usually packed by the 'stems up' method, starting at one (lower)
side of a tilted box. They are usually shipped in display lug boxes, 5 3/4" x
13 1/2" x 16 1/8", and hold 28 lbs net. Grapes for juice or wine are sold in
bushel containers or wooden lug boxes. Trend is toward huge lug containers
loaded and unloaded from truck with a fork lift. Good fruit of good varieties
may be stored for 36 months; usually held at -1° to -0.5°C, with
relative humidity of 8595%, depending on air velocity. Fumigation with 1%
sulfur dioxide before storage and refrigeration with 0.2% of the gas at 10-day
intervals helps prevent decay. Grapes picked before rains usually keep better
than those picked after rains. Grapes for raisins are of Vinifera type. In
California and Arizona about 90% of raisins are sun-dried between the rows of
vines; elsewhere dehydrators are used.
Maximum productivity of a vine depends largely upon the vigor of the vine the
preceding year. The more cane growth a vine makes, the greater its capacity to
yield fruit the next year. However, overbearing weakens the vine. In
California average yields vary from 25 to 30 tons/ha. World's largest fruit
industry; in United States second to production of apples. This species
provides 90% of worlds grapes. In 1965, world production was 54,311,000 MT,
the major producers being, in descending order, Italy, France, Spain, USSR, and
United States. California produces 90% of United States grapes. United States
exports grapes to Canada, Venezuela, Philippines, and United Kingdom; imports
from Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Production in United States is about 3.5
million tons annually, with an average price in 1967 of $.72/kg.
French get 2.6 x 106 MT/DM/yr of woody waste from their vineyards, the
Italians estimated to produce a similar figure, for a European total of 5.2 x
106 (Palz and Chartier, 1980). Grape rinds, after juice extraction, are still
rich in sugar. The grapeseed oil provides the pressed residues a heating value
of 20,000 J/kg DM. Grape mare thus occupies a Oosition between brown and black
coal. Emission of heat from grape mare is instantaneous, offering optimum
growth conditions for thermophilic microorganisms. The process is accentuated
when ground seeds, after separation and microbial decomposition, are replaced
by stored mare. "The grape has therefore a multipurpose utilization but its
use as source of energy far outweighs the rest" (A.K.S. 1979). In Australia,
Stewart et al. (1979) estimated that grapes would yield 117 liters ethanol per
ton at a cost of $1.11 per liter when cereal alcohol is running ca $0.20/1 and
gasoline ca $0.15.
Many cvs of the Vinifera-type are self-unfruitful, and require another cv with
an overlapping flowering period to be interplanted. In some cvs pruning
affects the effectiveness of the pollen. Spraying grapes for control of
insects and diseases is essential to production of fruit. However, the
problems are different in different places. Each grower should study his
conditions and apply only such sprays as found necessary and recommended.
Infection must be prevented if clean fruit is to be produced. Thoroughness is
very essential. Grapes are very sensitive to injury from 2,4-D. Grapes are
affected by a great many fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, insects and
mineral deficiencies. Local problems should be resolved with local
agricultural agents.
Analysing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling (1985)
reported a spread of 19.35 to 17.84 Mj/kg, compared to 13.76 for
weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a % DM basis, the
vineyard prunings contained 76.5378.63% volatiles, 2.173.04% ash,
19.2021.02% fixed carbon, 47.1448.02% C, 5.775.89% % H, 41.9343.90% O,
0.750.86% N, 0.010.07% S, 0.070.13% Cl, and undetermined residue.
Analysing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling (1985)
reported a spread of 20.34 to 19.14 Mj/kg, compared to 13.76 for
weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a % DM basis, the
pomace contained 68.54% volatiles, 9.48% ash, 21.98% fixed carbon,
52.91% C, 5.93% % H, 30.41% O, 1.86% N, 0.03% S, 0.05% Cl, and undetermined
residue.
- Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 161. In: ASA Special
Symposium 32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions. Am. Soc. Agron.
Madison, WI.
- Duke, J.A. 1979. Ecosystematic data on economic plants. Quart. J. Crude Drug
Res. 17(34):91110.
- Jenkins, B.M. and Ebeling, J.M. 1985. Thermochemical properties of biomass
fuels. Calif. Agric. 39(5/6):1416.
- Palz, W. and Chartier, P. (eds.). 1980. Energy from biomass in Europe. Applied
Science Publishers Ltd., London.
- Stewart, G.A., Gartside, G., Gifford, R.M., Nix, H.A., Rawlins, W.H.M., and
Siemon, J.R. 1979. The potential for liquid fuels from agriculture and forestry
in Australia. CSIRO. Alexander Bros., Mentone, Victoria, Australia.
Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops
Last update Friday, January 9, 1998 by aw